Reference List

Reference List

Cohen, E & Avieli, N 2004, ‘Food in tourism: Attraction and impediment’, Annals of Tourism Research, vol. 31, no.4, pp. 755-778.

Derrett, R 2001, ‘Special interest tourism: Starting with the individual’, in N Douglas, N Douglas & R Derrett (eds), Special Interest Tourism, Wiley, Brisbane, pp. 1-28.

Hall, CM & Sharples, L 2008, Food and Wine Festivals and Events Around The World: Development, Management and Markets, Oxford.

Hall, CM, Sharples, L, Cambourne, B & Macionis, N, 2003, Food Tourism Around The World: Development, Management and Markets, Oxford.

Intrepid Travel, 2012, viewed 01 April 2012, <http://www.intrepidtravel.com/>

Italian Tourism, 2012, viewed 01 April 2012, < http://www.italia.it/en/home.html>

Jafari, J 2001, Chapter 2, ‘The scientification of tourism’, in V Smith & M Brent (eds), Hosts and guests revisited: Tourism issues of the 21^st centuary, Cognizant Communication Corporation, New York, pp. 28-32.

Kivela, J & Crotts, JC 2006, ‘Tourism and gastronomy: Gastronomy’s influence on how tourists experience a destination, Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Research, vol. 30, no. 3, pp. 354-377.

Kotler, P, Bowen, JT & Makens, JC 2010, Marketing for Hospitality and Tourism, 5^th edn, New Jersey.

Leiper, N 2004, Tourism Management, 3^rd edn, Frenchs Forest.

Lopez-Guzman, T & Sanchez-Canizdres, S 2012, ‘Culinary tourism in Cordoba (Spain)’, British Food Journal, vol. 114, no. 2, pp. 168-179.

MacCannell, D 1989, The tourist: a new theory of the Leisure Class, New York.

Martin Randall Travel, 2012, viewed 01 April 2012, < http://www.martinrandall.com/>

Novelli, M 2005, Niche Tourism: Contemporary issues, trends and cases, Oxford.

Poon, A 2003, ‘Competitive strategies for a new tourism’, in C Cooper (ed.), Classic Reviews in Tourism, Clevedon, Channel View, pp. 130-142.

Slow Food Movement, 2012, viewed 01 April 2012, < http://slowfood.com/>

Weaver, D & Lawton, L 2010, Tourism Management, 4^th edn, Milton.

Wilson, E 2012, Study guide: Special Interest Tourism, Southern Cross University, Lismore, NSW.

Potential Impacts

  Potential Impacts for Gastronomic Tourism

In order to conduct an analysis of the potential impacts or contentious issues that relate specifically to gastronomic tourism, it is necessary to divide the analysis into the following three categories; 1) economic impacts, 2) social and cultural impacts, and finally, 3) environmental impacts.

As suggested by Jafari (2001), it is necessary to alert researchers who are associated with tourism that the economic benefits of tourism are often outweighed by the existence of economic impacts, otherwise known as the ‘cautionary platform on tourism consequences’ Jafari (2001, p. 30).  Based on Jafaris’ (2001), cautionary platform there are a number of economic impacts that occur in relation to gastronomic tourism and they include; 1) high leakage costs occurring due to the importation of externally manufactured materials, such as food and wine labels, and packaging, 2) seasonality causing fluctuations in the unemployment rate, especially in the non-peak season of winter in both Piedmont and Chianti, and finally, 3) increased business costs through the necessity of purchasing capital, such as restaurant extensions and the building of particular areas for wine tasting (Italian Tourism) (Jafari 2001).

Continuing with theme of Jafaris’ (2001), model for tourism research and its’ cautionary platform, it is appropriate to introduce the second category, social and cultural impacts and their connection with the potential impacts and contentious issues of gastronomic tourism.  The most prominent social and cultural impact linked to gastronomic tourism in both Piedmont and Chianti is involved with the characteristics of the guest-host relationships and how these interactions can become detrimental to both the tourist and the locals of the destination. The guest-host relationship is often damaged due to the following characteristics; 1) the transitory nature of the food and wine tours, leading to brief encounter resulting in short and lasting relationships are generally not formed, 2) an unbalanced relationship occurs whilst a tourist is focussed upon leisure and a locals is more focussed upon their work, and finally, 3) misunderstandings occur due to the cultural and behavioural differences between the guests and the hosts (Jafari 2001) (Leiper 2004) (Wilson 2012).

Target Markets

 Target Markets for Gastronomic Tourism

In order to identify the type of tourists who are attracted to gastronomic tourism within the regions of Piedmont and Chianti, Italy, it is necessary to use four different market segmentation variables as a framework for this discussion.  The three market segmentation variables include: 1) geographic segmentation, 2) demographic segmentation, and finally, 3) psychographic segmentation.  It must be noted however, that the approach of this discussion will not only focus on these regions of Italy, but also on other locations of gastronomic tourism in order to provide an overall study of the type of tourists that this tourism attracts.

The geographic segmentation factor associated with gastronomic tourism in Piedmont and Chianti focuses on what is the ‘strong reason’ (Kotler et al, 2010, p. 201), for the tourists wanting to travel long distances to these regions.  In relation to gastronomic tourism, the reason for tourists travelling to these destinations is due to the region being able to provide tourists with pleasurable culinary experiences.  Therefore, the regions attract tourists who consider the main purpose for their travel, is to enjoy and participate in different food related experiences (Italian Tourism) (Kotler et al. 2010).

The demographic segmentation of gastronomic tourism pertains to the area of family life cycle of couples who are without children, and who are also considered to have a high level of education (Guzman & Sanchez 2012).

The third variable, psychographic segmentation focuses on tourists who seek an individual and more authentic experience than the ‘old tourist’ (Poon 2003, p. 132) in relation to gastronomic tourism.  The tourist also values the experience of tasting and experiencing new foods in different destinations, such as Piedmont and Chianti.  These destinations are then noted as ‘indicators’ (Novelli 2005, p. 76) of  the ‘new tourists’ (Poon 2003, p. 132) lifestyle.

Gastronomony as Special Interest Tourism

 Gastronomoy Definitions and Special Interest Tourism

 

In order to discuss gastronomic tourism as a niche segment of special interest tourism it is essential to initial define special interest tourism and gastronomic tourism, followed by a discussion of the key features and characteristics of gastronomic tourism and completed with an analysis of the primary motivating factors for the tourists embarking upon gastronomic tourism.

Special interest tourism is an area of tourism that can be defined as offering tourists a real and authentic experience of travel that is customised to their specific desires and needs.  It also involves small-scale, tailor-made holidays, as opposed to mass tourism and can therefore focus more upon the individual, offering a higher level of involvement as well as a better quality product (Derrett 2001).

Within the area of special interest tourism is the niche segment of gastronomic tourism which can be described as offering a tourist a real and authentic experience through the involvement of activities that comprises of food and wine.  These activities may include; 1) to partake in the study and fulfilment of tasting food and wine, 2) to learn the art of preparing and cooking local recipes, 3) to join tours of local wineries and food producers, and finally 4) to purchase produce direct from its’ locally grown source (Novelli 2005).

Each of the above listed activities of gastronomic tourism can be classified as primary motivators or ‘hallmark attractions’ (Novelli 2005, p. 74) for a tourist, who seeks a small-scale holiday that involves eating and drinking as their main motivational factor for travelling.  Hall and Mitchell (cited in Novelli 2005) support this idea and discuss the importance of food and wine as a primary motivator for tourists’ in the way that it entices tourists to travel to specific regional areas in order to visit wineries, food producers, restaurants and finally, food and wine festivals.  Whereas, Cohen and Avieli (2004), challenge the idea of food as an attraction by highlighting that, eating and drinking in unfamiliar surroundings may initially be identified as an attraction, however when analysed more closely, the experience becomes more of an impediment, than an attraction.  However, I believe that eating and drinking in an unfamiliar country or region adds to the excitement of travel and is therefore an integral part of the visitors’ experience.  Furthermore, I tend to agree entirely with Read (cited in Wilson 2012) suggestion that when a tourist embarks upon a form of special interest tourism, such as gastronomic tourism, the experience should be ‘REAL travel, (that is Rewarding, Enriching, Adventuresome and a Learning Experience)’, (Wilson 2012).

Trends and Societal Changes

 Trends and Societal Changes

In order to identify the trends and societal changes that have led to the development of gastronomic tourism, it is necessary to divide the discussion into three separate areas.  The first area will identify and discuss the cultural trends associated with gastronomic tourism.  The second area of the discussion will highlight the societal changes related to gastronomic tourism, and finally the third part will briefly discuss political changes and their influence on gastronomic tourism.

Cultural trends have an important role to play in the shaping of tourism, as well as its’ stability and growth, and can be discussed using the five out of nine cultural trends that have been identified by Barzun (cited in Leiper 2004).  These cultural trends include: 1) emancipation, 2) secularism, 3) individualism, 4) self-conscious and finally, 5) primitivism.  However, for the purpose of this study the focus shall be on the second trend, secularism, which emphasises changes in lifestyle and consumer behaviour which have led to gastronomic tourism.  The most important change is the rise of interest in food and wine and their origins, followed closely by a rise in awareness of multiculturalism. However, the following changes are also significant factors and these include; the demand for a more personalised type of tourism, a move away from mass tourism, the desire and needs to find a unique travel experience, and finally, a lesser interest in passive entertainment and an increase of actively being involved (Derrett 2001) (Poon 2003).

In relation to societal changes and gastronomic tourism some of the more prominent changes include higher incomes, especially for women who can earn ‘equitable incomes through employment’ (Wilson & Little 2005, p.3), an increase in educational standards, more flexible work hours, a rise of ‘frequent short breaks’ (Derrett 2001, p.11), and finally, a shift in old-style ideologies for families.  These societal changes have contributed to an increased demand of gastronomic tourism by the existence of a rise in disposable incomes, free-time and an opportunity for women to travel more frequently and further afield from their home base (Leiper 2004) (Wilson & Little 2005).

And finally, worldwide political changes have contributed to gastronomic tourism in two ways, by firstly making more destinations accessible to tourists due to less political unrest, and secondly, by the interaction of governments in promoting the growth and development of gastronomic tourism (Novelli 2005).

Introduction

Gastronomic Tourism

For the purpose of this study my chosen niche sector of special interest tourism is gastronomic tourism, with a particular focus on food and wine tourism in two regional areas of Italy.  This is due to my passion for Italian food and wine, as well as the Italian culture, language and its’ landscape.

In order to give a concise outline of gastronomic tourism in Italy, this overview shall include an initial short description of gastronomic tourism, followed by a more in-depth discussion on specific gastronomic tours that are conducted in Italy and what can be experienced and learnt by the tourists who are part of these tours.

A tourist whose main reason for travelling is to experience local food and wine in a specific city, region, or country can be considered as partaking in gastronomic tourism.  As a gastronomic tourist, they are likely to embark upon a number of different activities associated with gastronomic tourism and these may include; 1) participating in cooking classes, 2) dining in a local restaurants, 3) tasting locally grown food and wine, 4) visiting farms growing a variety of products, 5) visiting festivals, and finally, 6) purchasing locally grown produce (Novelli 2005).

In Italy, the regions of Piedmont and Chianti are particularly inspiring in their ability to accommodate a gastronomic tourist and offer many of the listed food and wine tourism activities listed above. 

Piedmont is located in the north west of Italy, surrounded by the Alps nestled in the Po valley, the region is known for its’ rich agricultural and viticultural value, as well as being the centre for the Slow Food movement or ‘a return to a more localised and regional approach to food/wine production’ (slowfood.com).

One particular tour to this area, offered by Martin Randall Travel, offers a seven day travelling itinerary and includes: visits to local wineries, to study the wine-making process; wine tasting; truffle seminars and truffle hunting in the local woods; dinner served in family-run restaurants; and finally; visitation to a traditional sausage maker, cheese farm and nougat producer (www.martinrandall.com). 

Similarly to Piedmont, Chianti also offers an experience of gastronomic tourism; however the focus for one tour offered by Intrepid Travel is aimed more towards the production of wine and olive oil rather than the production of other food, such as cheese and truffles (www.intrepidtravel.com).

Whether a tourist embarks upon a gastronomic tour to Piedmont, or Chianti, it must be highlighted that even though their initial motivation for travel is their attraction towards food and wine, this attraction, may end up becoming an impediment.  This impediment is due to the tourist being unable to accept or be comfortable with having to dine on unknown local delicacies.  However, if the tourist is more inclined to be adventurous in trying new foods whilst travelling to foreign destinations, they may enjoy the adventure and experience of tasting unfamiliar local delicacies and can therefore classified as a ‘neophylic’ (Cohen and Avieli 2004, p. 760).  As opposed to being a ‘neophobic’ (Cohen and Avieli 2004, p. 760), which describes a tourist who has tendencies to desire the food they are accustomed to eating in their home country rather than enjoying the local delicacies (Cohen & Avieli 2004).